HoP 013 - 好脾气的人——希波克拉底学派

嗨，我是彼得·亚当森，你正在收听哲学史播客，感谢伦敦国王学院和 Leverhulme 信托基金的支持。

Hi, I'm Peter Adamson, you're listening to the History of Philosophy podcast, brought to you with the support of King's College London and the Leverhulme Trust.

今天的节目：好的早期希腊医学与古代哲学。

Today's episode: Good Early Greek Medicine and Ancient Philosophy.

首先，不要造成伤害。

First of all, do no harm.

这一医学伦理的基本原则可以追溯到被称为医学之父的科斯岛的希波克拉底。

This fundamental precept of medical ethics goes back to the man known as the father of medicine, Hippocrates of Kos.

嗯，差不多吧。

Well, more or less.

这句话出自一部名为《流行病》的著作，这是一部引人入胜的文本，提供了关于古代世界疾病爆发的详细医学观察。

The phrase is found in a work called the Epidemics, a fascinating text which gives detailed medical observations about outbreaks of disease in the ancient world.

它指示医疗从业者要帮助，或者至少不要造成伤害。

It instructs the medical practitioner to help, or at least not to harm.

这句话连同医生应该宣誓的观念一起流传至今。

And this phrase has come down to us along with the idea that doctors should take an oath.

即使在今天，我们还会说医生要遵守希波克拉底誓言。实际上，我们确实有一篇古希腊文文本，叫做《誓言》，和《流行病》一样，也被认为是希波克拉底写的。

Even today, we talk about doctors taking their Hippocratic Oath, and in fact, we do have an ancient Greek text called the Oath, which, like the Epidemics, is ascribed to Hippocrates.

这只是古代归于希波克拉底名下的六十多部著作中的两部。

These are just two of the more than 60 writings ascribed to Hippocrates in antiquity.

我们现在称它们为《希波克拉底文集》。

We now call them the Hippocratic Corpus.

但希波克拉底与这些文本的关系，有点像荷马与《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》的关系。

But the way Hippocrates relates to this body of texts is a bit like the way Homer relates to the Iliad and the Odyssey.

希波克拉底确实存在过。

Hippocrates certainly did exist.

事实上，我们对此比荷马存在过还要确定。

In fact, we're more sure of this than we are that Homer existed.

但我们无法确定文集中哪些部分是他写的，如果有的话。

But we can't say which, if any, parts of the corpus Hippocrates wrote.

希波克拉底不仅存在，而且很快就出了名。

Not only did Hippocrates exist, but he became famous very quickly.

正是因为他名声大噪，所有这些关于医学的著作才都归到了他的名下。

It's because of his fame that all these writings about medicine were attached to his name.

柏拉图和亚里士多德已经称他为杰出的医生。

Plato and Aristotle already refer to him as a preeminent doctor.

柏拉图还提到他招收学生并收取学费，传授医学知识。

Plato also says that he accepted students for a fee and taught them medicine.

和大多数前苏格拉底哲学家一样，我们并不确切知道希波克拉底生活在哪个年代，但当然，他肯定活跃在柏拉图提到他之前。

As with most Pre Socratics, we don't have a firm idea of when Hippocrates lived, though, of course, he must have been on the scene in time for Plato to have referred to him.

就我们的目的而言，可以说他比苏格拉底年轻，可能和柏拉图大致同时代。

For our purposes, it's enough to say that he was younger than Socrates, perhaps a rough contemporary of Plato's.

他是医学之父吗？

Was he the father of medicine?

当然，从某种意义上说，希波克拉底文集，即据称由希波克拉底所写的著作，代表了希腊最早的真正重要的医学文献。

Definitely, in the sense that the Hippocratic corpus, that is, the work supposedly written by Hippocrates, represent our first really important medical literature from the Greeks.

我们稍后会看到，有大量证据表明在希波克拉底之前，或者更确切地说，在他文集最早的作品写成之前，就已经有医疗活动了，但我们最早幸存的医学论著正是在希波克拉底文集中。

As we'll see in a minute, there is plenty of evidence that there was medical activity before Hippocrates, or perhaps we should say, before even the earliest works from his corpus were written, but it's in the Hippocratic corpus that we have our earliest surviving treatises on medicine.

它们涵盖了从医生应有的行为方式（比如希波克拉底誓言）到疾病成因的理论，再到医生应该用来治疗和预防疾病的技术，无所不包。

They discuss everything from the way a doctor should behave, as in the oath, to theories about the causes of disease, to the techniques that the doctor should use to cure and prevent diseases.

我知道你们在想什么。

Now, I know what you're thinking.

这是一个关于哲学史的播客，为什么我要讲医学呢？

This is a podcast about the history of philosophy, so why am I talking about medicine?

正如我在关于恩培多克勒那一集结尾所说的，在希腊世界，哲学和医学关系非常密切。

Well, as I said at the end of the episode about Empedocles, philosophy and medicine were very closely related in the Greek world.

部分原因是，这只是一个我之前提到过的例子，即哲学和科学在希腊世界总体上关系非常密切。

In part, this is just an example of something I've mentioned before, that philosophy and science in general were very closely related in the Greek world.

但医学是一个特别好的例子，因为许多有哲学思想的作者都关注医学，而且我们确实可以追溯哲学对医学思想的影响。

But medicine makes a particularly good example, because it was a preoccupation of so many philosophically minded authors, and because we can actually trace the impact of philosophy on medical ideas.

在希腊世界，医学和哲学是相辅相成的，尤其是在苏格拉底、柏拉图和亚里士多德之前的几代人，也就是催生了希波克拉底文集中所体现的医学理解的同一时期。

Medicine and philosophy in the Greek world went hand in hand, especially in the generations leading up to the time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the same period that gave rise to the understanding of medicine enshrined in the Hippocratic Corpus.

医学，作为一种由某些专家声称拥有的专业技能，在希腊世界可以追溯到很久以前，事实上几乎和我们的证据一样久远。

Medicine, in the sense of a technical expertise claimed by certain experts, goes way back in the Greek world, in fact pretty much as far as our evidence does.

在《伊利亚特》中，荷马描绘了众神治愈伤口，还提到了两个既是士兵又是治疗者的人类角色。

In the Iliad, Homer depicts the gods healing wounds, and also includes two human characters who are both soldiers and healers.

他们从父亲阿斯克勒庇俄斯那里学到了医术。

They learned their art of medicine from their father, Asclepius.

在荷马笔下，阿斯克勒庇俄斯似乎是个凡人，尽管他的父亲是半人马。

In Homer, Asclepius seems to be a human, albeit one whose father was a centaur.

不过，在希腊历史的后期，阿斯克勒庇俄斯被视为医神。

Later on in Greek history, though, Asclepius will be seen as a god of medicine.

所以，这是医学与哲学相似的一个方面：传统的种子早已播撒在荷马史诗中。

So this is one way that medicine is like philosophy: the seeds of a tradition are already planted in the Homeric poems.

另一个惊人的相似之处是，希腊医学与孕育了哲学的地区——远东地中海地区——紧密相连。

Another striking parallel is that Greek medicine is associated with the same region of the Greek world that gave birth to philosophy, the Far Eastern Mediterranean.

希波克拉底来自科斯岛，该岛位于伊奥尼亚海岸附近，而米利都学派和赫拉克利特正是在那里提出了最初的哲学思想。

Hippocrates hailed from the island of Kos, off the coast of Ionia, where the Milesians and Heraclitus devised the first philosophical thoughts.

值得注意的是，尽管科斯岛使用的希腊语方言是多里安方言，但希波克拉底文集却完全用伊奥尼亚方言写成。

It's revealing that, even though the dialect of Greek spoken in Kous was Doric the Hippocratic corpus is written entirely in the Ionic dialect.

所以，这又是一个希波克拉底医学和前苏格拉底哲学之间联系的线索。

So, that's another hint of the connections between Hippocratic medicine and Pre Socratic philosophy.

我们还可以看看希波克拉底学派作者对宗教的态度。

We can also point to the attitude that Hippocratic authors take towards religion.

和前苏格拉底哲学一样，人们常说希腊医学与宗教划清界限，从而变得科学和理性，但同样，实际情况要复杂一些。

As with Pre Socratic philosophy, it's commonly said that Greek medicine distanced itself from religion and thus became scientific and rational, but also as with presocratic philosophy, the situation is actually a bit more complicated.

一个有趣的例子是希波克拉底关于癫痫的著作，希腊人称这种病为“神圣的疾病”。

An interesting case here would be a Hippocratic work on epilepsy, which the Greeks called the sacred disease.

人们认为癫痫是神送来的，有时还涉及癫痫患者的幻觉，因此被称为“神圣的疾病”。

Epilepsy was thought to be sent by the gods, and sometimes to involve inspired visions on the part of the epileptic person, hence the sacred disease.

但《论神圣的疾病》这篇希波克拉底论文的作者并不认同这种观点。

But the author of the Hippocratic treatise titled the sacred disease doesn't have much time for this notion.

他解释说，癫痫和其他疾病一样，有自然的原因。

He explains that epilepsy, like other diseases, has natural causes.

它并不是神随意降下的诅咒或祝福。

Isn't It a curse, or for that matter a blessing, that comes willy nilly from the gods.

他嘲笑那些声称某些类型的癫痫发作是由特定的神引起的人。

He makes fun of people who claim that certain kinds of epileptic fits are caused by certain gods.

相反，他说，癫痫并不比其他任何疾病更神圣，但他接着补充说，癫痫也不比其他任何疾病更不神圣。

Instead, he says, epilepsy is no more sacred than any other disease, but he goes on to add that epilepsy is no less sacred than any other disease.

从某种意义上说，所有疾病都是神圣的，因为它们是由风或太阳等自然力量在我们体内引起的，而这些力量本身就是神圣的。

In a sense, all diseases are sacred because they are brought about in our bodies by natural forces like the winds or the sun, and these forces are themselves divine.

他以一句堪比赫拉克利特的格言作结：所有的疾病都是神圣的，也都是人类的。

He concludes with an aphorism worthy of Heraclitus, All diseases are divine, and all are human.

实际上，这位作者声称自己比那些把癫痫归咎于神的人更虔诚。对神的敬畏并不意味着认为神会随机干预人类生活，用疾病打击某些人。

If anything, the author is claiming to be more pious than those who blame epilepsy on the Respect for the gods doesn't mean thinking that they intervene randomly in human life to strike certain people down with an illness.

这意味着将整个自然视为神圣的，或具有神圣的源头。

It means seeing all of nature as divine, or as having a divine source.

这可能会让我们想起色诺芬尼，他攻击荷马和赫西俄德，因为他们把神描绘得太像人类，具有人类的情感和非理性。

This might remind us of Xenophanes, who attacked Homer and Hesiod for making the gods too much like humans, with human emotions and irrationality.

色诺芬尼和《神圣疾病》的作者一样，将理性视为正确的宗教态度，而不是对宗教的完全背离。

Xenophanes, like the author of The Sacred Disease, saw rationality as the correct religious attitude, not as a complete departure from religion.

实际上，希腊医学和宗教实践是紧密相关的。

In fact, Greek medicine was closely related to religious practice.

当时有很多复杂的宗教仪式，人们会向神祈求治愈。

There were elaborate cults which involved asking the gods for healing.

比如阿斯克勒庇俄斯的崇拜，在公元前五世纪末传入雅典。

An example would be the cult of Asclepius, which was introduced in Athens in the late fifth century BC.

那时候，阿斯克勒庇俄斯被视为神。

At this point, Asclepius is seen as a god.

他有一座专门的庙宇，里面有一批祭司，他们显然也是医生。

He has a dedicated temple with a staff of priests who are apparently also doctors.

你生病的时候，就去庙里或者庙附近睡觉。

When you're sick, you go sleep in or near the temple.

如果你得到神的眷顾，你会做一个梦，在梦里神要么直接治好你，要么告诉你该怎么治。

If you are favored by the god, you will have a dream, during which the god will either heal you or give you instructions on how to be cured.

阿斯克勒庇俄斯的崇拜和希波克拉底的家乡科斯岛关系密切，那里还建了一座大庙来纪念他。

Asclepius' cult became strongly associated with Hippocrates' island of Kos, and a large temple was built there in his honor.

在古代，有个传说说希波克拉底是通过阅读神庙墙壁上的文字来获得医学智慧的，但按时间顺序来看，这不可能。

In the ancient world, there was a legend that Hippocrates learned his medical wisdom by reading the walls of the temple, but this is impossible for chronological reasons.

不过，我们完全有理由认为，希波克拉底本人，以及那些撰写和阅读希波克拉底医学论著的医生们，会接受围绕疾病的宗教习俗。

Still, there's every reason to think that Hippocrates himself, and the sort of doctors who wrote and read the Hippocratic treatises, would have accepted the religious practices around disease.

与此同时，他们也试图将人类的理解带入对疾病原因和治疗的祈祷中。

At the same time, they sought to bring human understanding to prayer on the causes and cures of those diseases.

正如一位希波克拉底学派的作者所说：祈祷是好的，但除了祈求神灵，还应该自己动手。

As one Hippocratic author says, Prayer is good, but in addition to calling on the gods, one should lend a hand.

所以，宗教是孕育希波克拉底医学的世界的一部分，但更大的影响来自前苏格拉底哲学和科学思想。

So religion was one part of the world that generated Hippocratic medicine, but a still bigger influence came from presocratic philosophical and scientific ideas.

在之前的节目中，我们看到哲学家们提出了一些近乎医学的主张。

In previous episodes, we've seen philosophers making claims that border on the medical.

例如，赫拉克利特说醉酒与湿润有关，或者阿那克萨戈拉用他的万物混合理论来解释营养。

For instance, Heraclitus saying that drunkenness relates to being moist, or Anaxagoras explaining nutrition with his theory of universal mixture.

还记得吗？你的身体之所以能通过奶酪得到恢复，是因为奶酪中含有骨骼和肉类的成分。

Remember how your body is restored by cheese because there's bone and flesh in the cheese?

但就真正的医学而言，恩培多克勒是最重要的前苏格拉底哲学家。

But for medicine in the proper sense, Empedocles was the most important of the famous Pre Socratics.

他声称无论走到哪里，人们都请他治病，而且他还精通药物。

He claimed that wherever he went, people asked him to cure them, and also that he had knowledge of drugs.

这些医学兴趣在其他残篇中也得到了证实。

These medical interests are borne out by other fragments.

我上次提到，对恩培多克勒来说，万物由四种元素构成：气、土、火和水。

I mentioned last time that for Empedocles, everything is made up of the four elements: air, earth, fire, and water.

我还提到他对骨骼进行了分析，并详细描述了眼睛的结构。

I also mentioned that he gave an analysis of bone, as well as a detailed description of the structure of the eye.

在这两种情况下，他都解释了这些身体部位如何由四种元素产生，而且对恩培多克勒来说，血液和肌肉几乎由四种元素等比例构成。

In both cases, he explains how these body parts arise out of the four elements, and for Empedocles, blood and flesh are made of nearly equal proportions of the four elements.

这使得血液和肌肉在恩培多克勒看来，几乎是一种理想的物质。

That makes blood and flesh something like an ideal physical stuff from Empedocles' point of view.

这个想法在医学上的应用显而易见：如果你生病了，那是因为你的比例失衡了。

The medical application for this idea is obvious: if you're sick, it's because your proportions are out of whack.

我们找到另一位思想家，那位更不为人知的洛克里的菲利西安，他正好提出了这个观点。

We find another thinker, the much more obscure Felician of Locri, making precisely this point.

洛克里位于意大利靴子的尖端，离恩培多克勒在西西里的家不远，他采纳了恩培多克勒的四元素理论。

Locri is at the tip of the Italian boot, so not far from Empedocles' home in Sicily, and he takes up Empedocles' four element theory.

菲利西安说，既然你的身体由这四种元素组成，我们生病是因为某些元素占主导，导致身体过热、过冷、过干或过湿。

Philistion says that since your body is made up of those four elements we get sick because some of the elements dominate, so that our bodies become too hot, cold, dry, or wet.

关键在于让这些性质达到平衡。

The trick is to get these qualities into balance.

菲利西安的说法基于恩培多克勒的理论，但也有些常识上的合理性。

What Philistion says is based on Empedigles' theory, but it also has some common sense plausibility.

想想你发烧时的感觉就知道了。

Just think of what it's like when you have a fever.

这个想法将在未来几个世纪里被应用。

The idea will be applied for centuries and centuries to come.

例如，希波克拉底学派的医生已经广泛使用药物，而这种理论，即使细节上不准确，其大致框架也能为药物的作用提供理论基础。

For instance, Hippocratic doctors already made extensive use of drugs, and this sort of theory, in its general outlines, if not in its details, could provide a theoretical basis for how the drugs worked.

随着医学传统的延续，药理学理论倾向于解释药物成分会调节你身体的热、冷、湿或干燥。

As the medical tradition carries on, theories about pharmacology tend to explain that the ingredients in the drugs will adjust the heat, cold, moisture, or dryness of your body.

古代医学的另一个主要领域——饮食，也是如此。

The same thing goes for another major area of ancient medicine: diet.

如果你在古时候咨询医生，无论是在公元前四世纪的希腊，还是千年之后的罗马帝国晚期，医生几乎肯定会给你关于吃什么、做多少运动等方面的建议。

If you consulted a doctor in the ancient world, whether in fourth century Greece or a millennium later in the late Roman Empire, the doctor would almost certainly give you advice about what to eat, how much exercise to get, and so on.

这些建议基于长期的观察和反复试验。

The advice was based on long observation, and on trial and error.

但如果你追问医生，让他们从理论上解释为什么这些方法有效，他们很可能会提到恩培多克勒的四元素理论。

But, if you pushed the doctor to give a theoretical explanation for why these things worked, they would most likely say something involving Empedocles' four element theory.

不过，恩培多克勒对医学的贡献远不止这个一般理论。

Empedocles gave more to medicine than this general theory, though.

我刚才提到，他非常相信血液，认为血液具有完美平衡的比例。

I just mentioned that he was a big believer in blood, with its perfectly balanced proportions.

他还非常重视呼吸。

He also put a lot of emphasis on breath.

希腊语中呼吸这个词是pneuma，我们说的pneumatic（气动的）就是从这来的。

The Greek word for breath is pneuma, which is where we get words like pneumatic.

亚里士多德的一段长文解释说，根据恩培多克勒的观点，呼吸和血液之间有一种相互作用。

A long testimony in Aristotle explains that according to Empedocles, there's a kind of interplay between breath and blood.

我们身体的组织里有通道，这些通道交替充满血液和空气。

There are passages through the flesh of our bodies which fill with blood and then with air, in alternation.

从其他作者如菲利斯蒂翁的记载来看，这似乎是为了说明吸入空气能让身体的内在热量保持更适中。

To judge from other authors like Philistion, the point of this was apparently that taking in air keeps the innate heat of our bodies more moderate.

再说一遍，一切都是关于比例和平衡。

Again, it's all about proportion and balance.

另一位前苏格拉底哲学家，阿波罗尼亚的第欧根尼，也对呼吸非常着迷。

Another pre Socratic philosopher who was fascinated by breath was Diogenes of Apollonia.

他可能不值得单独做一期节目。

He isn't going to quite rate his own episode.

甚至古代作者也倾向于认为他有点借鉴其他思想家的观点。

Even ancient authors tended to see him as somewhat derivative of other thinkers.

他的核心观点是气这一原则，这似乎又回到了我们第二集讲过的米利都哲学家阿那克西美尼那里。

His big thing was the principle of air, which seems to be a throwback to good old Anaximenes, the Milesian philosopher we looked at way back in episode two.

第欧根尼受阿那克萨戈拉的影响比恩培多克勒更大，他把自己的气原则等同于阿那克萨戈拉的宇宙心灵。

Diogenes was more influenced by Anaxagoras than Empedocles, and identified his airy principle with the cosmic mind of Anaxagoras.

气是一种充满宇宙的智能原则，当它的密度变化时，就变成了其他元素。

Air is an intelligent principle flooding the universe, and it becomes the other elements when it changes in density.

作为证明，他指出宇宙中的智能生物，也就是我们人类和其他动物，都是通过呼吸吸入空气来生存的。

As a proof of this, he points to the fact that the intelligent beings of the cosmos, namely we humans and other animals, live by taking in air as we breathe.

死亡，说白了，就是喘不上气；而聪明基本上就是身体里含有更多的气，所以他用植物不吸入和保留空气来解释它们为什么不能思考。

Dying is, quite literally, running out of breath, and being intelligent is basically a matter of having more air in your physical makeup, so that he explains the fact that plants can't think in terms of their not taking in and retaining air.

同样，这里也有医学或至少解剖学上的应用。

Again, there are medical, or at least anatomical, applications.

比如，他有一个关于生殖的理论，我会说得委婉一点，因为这是一个适合家庭收听的播客。

For instance, he has a theory of reproduction, which I'll describe delicately since this is a family podcast.

基本观点是，男性产生的精液是血液，经过稀释和起泡，与——你猜对了——空气混合而成。

The basic idea is that the human seed produced by men is blood, which has been thinned and made foamy by mixing with, you guessed it, air.

他甚至观察了血管网络，用来支持这个理论。

He even made observations about the network of blood vessels, which were supposed to support this theory.

第欧根尼不是个大思想家，但他认为生命和呼吸或气息密切相关的想法几乎让人无法抗拒，至少别人也这么想过。

Diogenes was not a major thinker, but his idea that there is a close association between life and breath or pneuma is almost irresistible, at least what someone else has thought of it.

毕竟，活着的人呼吸，死了的人不呼吸，这不可能只是巧合，对吧？

After all, it can't be a coincidence that living people breathe and dead ones don't, right?

后来的许多思想家会进一步说，灵魂本身由某种气息构成，这种气息遍布全身，甚至可能通过我们现在所知的血管或神经循环。

Many later thinkers will go further and say that the soul itself is made of some kind of breath, which pervades the body and perhaps even circulates through what we now know to be blood vessels or nerves.

这些理论会变得相当复杂。

These theories will get quite sophisticated.

比如，公元二世纪的医生盖伦，整个医学史上最重要的人物，区分了几种不同的气息，它们赋予身体活力。

For instance, the second century AD doctor, Galen, the most important figure in the entire history of medicine, distinguished several different types of pneuma which animate the body.

我不是说我们应该把这一切直接追溯到巴比伦的第欧根尼或阿那克西美尼，但肯定的是，这些想法的基础是由前苏格拉底哲学家奠定的。

I'm not saying we should try to trace all this directly back to Diogenes of Babylonia or to Anaximenes, but certainly the foundations of the idea were laid by the Pre Socratics.

当然，这些理论上的考虑并不是希波克拉底文集作者们的主要关注点。

Now, these sorts of theoretical considerations were certainly not the main concern of the authors of the Hippocratic Corpus.

这些论著涵盖了从医学伦理到药物、妇科等各种各样的议题。

The treatises cover a range of issues from medical ethics to drugs, gynecology, you name it.

有一篇叫《论古代医学》的文章，实际上是在捍卫它所谓的传统医学，反对那些用热、干、冷、湿来解释的新奇理论。

One text called On Ancient Medicine actually defends what it considers to be traditional medicine against these new fangled theories, which invoke hot, dry, cold, and wet.

事实上，《论古代医学》的作者明确提到，希波克拉底派的作者说，我们不应该采用这些过于简单的理论，而应该遵循医学传统的教义，这些教义是从长期细致的经验中得来的。

In fact, the author of On Ancient Medicine refers explicitly to Instead of these simplistic theories, the Hippocratic author says, we must follow the teachings of the medical tradition, which are gleaned from long and careful experience.

医学是一门庞大而复杂的知识体系，尤其需要用它来为每个病人制定合适的饮食方案。

Medicine is a large and complex body of knowledge, which is especially required in order to prescribe the correct diet for each patient.

这位作者因此预见了古代晚期的一些争论，在那里我们会看到盖伦批评其他学派，说他们认为医学很容易学，只需掌握几条理论原则就行了。

The author thus anticipates arguments in the late ancient world, where we will find Galen criticizing rival schools for saying that medicine is easy and simple to learn on the basis of a few theoretical principles.

引用另一句著名的希波克拉底名言：生命短暂，医术长存。

To quote another famous Hippocratic saying, Life is short, but the art is long.

然而，希波克拉底文集确实承认某些理论原则。

And yet, the Hippocratic Corpus does recognize certain theoretical principles.

当然，由于希波克拉底文集的各篇并非出自同一人之手，理论基础在不同文本之间会有所变化。

Of course, given that the various Hippocratic treatises aren't all by the same person, the theoretical basis can change from one text to another.

但在很多希波克拉底文献中，我们发现一个观点：让我们的身体保持健康的，和维持整个宇宙运转的是同一个东西——平衡与比例。

But something we find in a lot of the Hippocratic material is that idea that what makes our bodies healthy is the same thing that preserves the cosmos as a whole: balance and proportion.

特别是，希波克拉底学派谈到体液，也就是身体里的各种液体，要保持良好的平衡比例。

In particular, the Hippocratics talk about the well balanced proportion of bodily humors, meaning the various fluids in the body.

你可能听说过四种体液：血液、黏液、黄胆汁和黑胆汁。

You may well have heard of the four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile.

这和恩培多克勒的四大元素不是巧合，体液同样可以与元素性质联系起来，比如热、冷等等。

The parallel with the four elements of Empedocles is not a coincidence, and the humors could likewise be associated with the elemental properties: heat, cold, and so on.

四体液理论的这个版本在希波克拉底文献产生时还在发展中，所以这些文献并没有一致地把它们称为标准的四种体液，但我们经常能看到保持体液平衡的观点，也就是保持每篇文献中提到的那些体液平衡。

This version of the four humor theory was in the process of developing at the time the Hippocratic corpus was produced, So we don't find the Corpus consistently referring to these as the canonical four humors, but we do often find the idea of keeping the humors in balance, that is, whichever humors are recognized in a given treatise.

体液已经开始和特定疾病关联起来了。

The humors are already starting to be associated with specific diseases.

最好的例子就是忧郁症。

The best example is melancholy.

忧郁症这个词来自希腊语的“黑”和“胆汁”。

The word melancholy comes from the Greek words for black and bile.

英语单词sanguine和phlegmatic的意思也指的是古代和中世纪思想家所认可的体液。

The meanings of the English words sanguine and phlegmatic also refer to humors recognized by ancient and medieval thinkers.

Sanguine暗指血液，而phlegmatic则暗指，嗯，痰。

Sanguine is an allusion to blood and phlegmatic to, well, phlegm.

这些英语单词指的是性格特征而非疾病，这一事实表明，这一传统将体液理论扩展到了不仅解释疾病，还解释广泛的人类行为。

The fact that these English words refer to personality traits and not diseases shows that the tradition extended the humoral theory to explain not just disease, but a wide range of human behavior.

我们联想到中世纪医学的一些臭名昭著的做法，比如放血，也可以解释为试图通过排出过多的体液来恢复身体的平衡。

Some of the notorious practices we associate with medieval medicine, like bloodletting, can also be explained as an attempt to restore balance to the body by draining out one humor that has become excessive.

希波克拉底的医生确实会进行放血和拔罐，拔罐就是切一个小口，然后在上面放一个加热的玻璃杯。

Hippocratic doctors did practice bloodletting as well as cupping, which is where you make a small incision and place a heated glass over it.

当玻璃冷却时，会在玻璃内部产生负压，从而把血吸出来。

When the glass cools, this creates negative pressure inside the glass, which draws out the blood.

但希波克拉底的作者们告诫我们要谨慎使用这些技术。

But the Hippocratic authors caution us to use such techniques sparingly.

总的来说，他们表现出一种令人钦佩的谨慎，不愿进行我们现在所说的侵入性手术。

In general, they show an admirable reluctance to engage in what we would now call invasive procedures.

他们知道自己的医术有严重的局限性。

They knew that their art had serious limits.

希波克拉底誓言要求医生承诺不使用手术刀，不过这里的想法可能只是说手术应该留给真正的专家，而誓言是针对那些我们称之为全科医生的医生的。

The oath has the doctor promise to avoid using the knife, though the idea here may just be that surgery should be left to real specialists, whereas the oath was for doctors who were what we might call general practitioners.

回顾希波克拉底医学实践，我们可以看到许多吸引人的特点，这些特点与现代医学形成了有趣的对比。

It's possible to look back at Hippocratic practices and see many attractive features that make an interesting contrast to modern medicine.

例如，他们不仅不愿干预，还注重预防医学，尤其是通过饮食建议的形式。

For instance, there is not only their reluctance to intervene, but also their attention to preventative medicine, especially in the form of dietary advice.

希波克拉底坚持认为医学是一门艺术，而不是一套自动应用的规则，因此医生必须学会把每个病人当作个体案例来评估。

There's the Hippocratic insistence that medicine is an art and not a set of rules to be applied automatically, so that the doctor must learn to size up each patient as an individual case.

他们致力于整体论，这一点被柏拉图本人提及为希波克拉底的标志性学说。

There is the commitment to holism, which is mentioned as a signature doctrine of Hippocrates by none other than Plato.

希波克拉底教导说，应该治疗整个身体，而不仅仅是身体上患病的那一部分。

Hippocrates taught that one should treat the whole body, not just the one part of the body where we find an ailment.

但在我开始听起来像查尔斯王子之前，让我们先搁置希波克拉底实践对现代医学的启示，转而问一下，这一切在早期希腊哲学方面给我们留下了什么。

But before I start to sound like Prince Charles, let's leave to one side the implications of Hippocratic practices for modern medicine, and ask instead where all this leaves us in terms of early Greek philosophy.

首先，这提醒我们，前苏格拉底学派将他们的普遍理论应用到了非常具体的问题上。

For one thing, it reminds us that the Pre Socratics applied their general theories to very specific problems.

正如我在之前的节目中提到的，他们把身体看作一个微观世界，是整个宇宙的缩影。

As I mentioned in an earlier episode, they saw the body as a microcosm, a little version of the whole universe.

适用于宇宙的规律同样适用于人体，这个观念甚至被用来解释呼吸、血液和骨骼的成分等事情。

The rules that apply to the cosmos apply to the human body as well, an idea which is used to explain even things like respiration and the ingredients of blood and bone.

我们还了解到，前苏格拉底学派成功地对他们的文化产生了更广泛的影响。

Something else we've learned is that the Pre Socratics managed to influence their culture more broadly.

他们不把哲学看作一门狭隘、封闭的学科，他们的广阔视野使他们能够影响其他兴趣的作者，比如这些医生，他们采纳了前苏格拉底的思想并加以应用。

They didn't see philosophy as a narrow, cloistered discipline, and their breadth of vision meant that they could influence authors with other interests, like these doctors, who took Pre Socratic ideas and put them to use.

随着我们将注意力转向三大巨头：苏格拉底、柏拉图和亚里士多德，这种哲学与更广泛的希腊文化的融合只会变得更加重要。

This integration of philosophy into wider Greek culture is only going to become more important as we turn our attention to the big three: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

事实上，在两周后我们讲到苏格拉底之前，我想再用一集来探讨这个更广泛的文化背景。

In fact, before we get to Socrates in two weeks, I want to spend one more episode on this wider cultural context.

下周，我将介绍一群让人既着迷又恼火的思想家。

Next week, I'll be looking at a group of thinkers who fascinate and infuriate in equal measure.

柏拉图会把他们作为苏格拉底和真正哲学的陪衬。

Plato will make them a foil for Socrates and for true philosophy.

他会让他们的名字成为诡辩和狡辩的代名词。

He will make their very names synonymous with dubious, devious argument.

然而，在这些作者的作品中，也能找到一些基本哲学思想的根源，比如相对主义。

Yet among these same authors will find the roots of some fundamental philosophical ideas, such as relativism.

这些多面、狡猾的人物是谁呢？

Who are these many faced, slippery characters?

如果你还没猜到，那就只能下周收听揭晓了，这里是《哲学史无遗漏》。

If you haven't already guessed, you'll just have to tune in next week to find out, here on the history of philosophy without any gaps.